School-based teams will always be, and should always be, a major part of our professional roles. This review is designed to: (a) sensitize school professionals to the importance of social psychological factors operating within group settings, and (b) shed light on approaches that might increase our effectiveness in groups.

Group decisions are typically better than the average individual but much worse than the best individual. Groups usually do not live up to their potential.

How do you measure the effectiveness of pre-referral intervention teams? School teams should determine the goal(s) of the pre-referral intervention team and let that guide measurement of outcomes. If, however, team members can not reach consensus on these or some other measurable outcome criteria, perhaps everyone concerned ought to be questioning the values of teams such as these.

Selected factors influencing the quality of decision making:

1. The power of the majority- People accept the opinions of others as accurate believing that there is truth in numbers. People fear rejection that is likely to result from holding a minority position. These problems are most likely to occur when the group is (1) highly cohesive, (2) lacking well-defined problem-solving procedures, (3) conducted by a highly directive leader, (4) under high stress, (5) faced with difficult problems and little hope for finding good solutions, (6) meeting face-to-face, and (7) confronted w/ ambiguous problems. Creativity and consideration of wide range of alternatives are needed.

2. The value of minority dissent- One of the best antidotes for groupthink is minority dissent. Even if only one person dissents and even if they don't come up with a viable alternative, benefit remains for minority dissent. Minority dissent increases creative problem solving, the recall of information, and the search for divergent points of view. Minority dissenters who hold consistent positions across time are typically substantially more influential with majorities than those who vacillate in their position. However, being perceived as rigid by the majority undermines some of the gains from taking a consistent position. Group members should encourage objections and doubt, appoint one member to be devil's advocate at each meeting (different person each time), and invite outside members to group to challenge their views. "Specifically, it appears that teams should be structured in ways that encourage objections and doubt among group members in reference to ideas supported by the majority." For the most effective brainstorming, try individual brainstorming - then group brainstorming.

3. Group polarization- Group polarization refers to the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the average of the group. This is most likely to occur when (a) all members of the group are on the same side of an issue, (b) there is not complete consensus among group members at the beginning of a discussion, and (c) the issue is discussed by the group. Even a single dissenting voice can moderate the effects of polarization.

4. Shared norms- Norms often form in response to new and ambiguous circumstances. Examples of norms include (a) focusing on alterable variables in problem-solving meetings, (b) believing that all children can learn, (c) believing that general education teachers can serve most students, and (d) using data to make decisions. How can school professionals foster the creation and perpetuation of norms that will facilitate the successful functioning of pre-referral intervention teams? The authors suggest that professionals take opportunities to build alliances with principals and other school leaders to impact norms indirectly. They also emphasize the value of consistency and flexibility- "Maximum impact on the majority appears to come about when a consistent position is combined with a flexible style of negotiating, particularly when differences of opinion are large and the dissenter is alone in his/her position."

Questions or comments can be sent to: Sue Dungan

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© Heartland AEA 11, 2001